|
Year
|
Land and Environment1
|
|
| ~400 |
Tropical rainforests in east;
mosaic of montane forests, dry forests, open woodlands, grasslands in
the west and hills. |
successive migrations from
Indonesia, Africa and Arabia |
|
1500s
|
Rice cultivation lowland
and subject to silting due to erosion of hillsides during rains.
|
Imerina Kingdom dominates
75% of Madagascar Rice cultivation |
| 1782-1810 |
Imerina kingdom establishes
conservation policy in area surrounding Antananarivo (Imerina): burning
and woodcutting prohibited (offenders could be executed) |
King Andrianampoinimerina |
| 1810-1828 |
Radama I takes over most
of the island with British help |
|
|
1880s
|
Cloves, coffee, vanilla,
pepper introduced; rice cultivation expanded :
deforestation ; Eucalyptus,
Acacia, Pinus introduced |
Military conquest by France
|
| 1902 |
Academie Malgache founded;
ban on killing lemurs |
|
|
1910-20 |
Rise of nationalism |
|
|
1926-7 |
Unowned forests and lands
declared to belong to government; ten forest reserves established (Reserves
Naturelles Integrales); forest service instituted |
|
| 1955-60 |
Five more categories of reserves: national parks, special reserves, classified forests, reafforestation zones, non-hunting reserves | Rise of Social Democratic Party
(PSD) headed by Tsiranana |
|
1960 |
Independence: Philibert Tsiranana
president |
|
| 1960-64 |
Land tenure and Land use
laws: social obligation to develop land and cultivate uncultivated land,
but land clearance permitted only in certain areas and with official
permission. 1961: Endangered species list created 1962: All men required to plant 100 seedlings a year or pay tax*. 1963: WWF/IUCN started working on Aye-Aye |
1960-1972: First Republic: Autocratic
centralized government. Favoured coastal peoples (cotiers) over inland peoples (especially Imerina) |
| 1970 |
Increased environmental awareness;
International Conference on the Conservation of Natural Resources organized
with IUCN |
Calvin Tsiebo vice-President:
closed conference with call for new protected areas and national and
international involvement and financial support. Dr. Rakitimaria , Director of Scientific Research pointed to need for Malasy involvement in negotiations. "Scientists will only be allowed to work here if they arrange reciprocal benefits for Malagasy colleagues." (see below) |
|
1972-75 |
*Afforestation required of
men abolished Lack of environmental concern Lost self sufficiency in rice (price control led to underproduction?) |
Popular unrest; Tsiranana
hands over power to Gen
Ramanantsoa
[Second Republic: Moderate left. French influence in government and other positions of power reduced: "May revolution" seen as second independence . Ties with South Africa cut] Coup: Lieutenant-Commander Didier Ratsiraka takes power "Democratic Republic of Madagascar" 1-party Marxist constitution Nationalizes economy; establishes AREMA. |
| 1979 |
WWF established official
representation in Antananarivo under Barthelei Vaohita, a conservation
activist (
Ratsiraka's friend) |
|
|
1980-86 |
From denying importance of
environment, Madagascar went to being a leader in sound policy. Foreign research invited again; council created (1983) under Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Yale, Duke, Washington Universities. |
Marxist experiment abandoned;
IMF loan, |
| 1984 |
National Strategy
for Conservation and Development : discusses public awareness
and education, technical competency, local participation |
|
| 1985 |
Second International
Conference on Conservation and Development. Discussion of
funding and implementation of National Strategy for Conservation and
Development. Ethiopia seen as a model of what not to do. |
|
| 1986 |
WWF -- environmental education in schools -- Martin Nicoll and Olivier Langrand appointed to review protected area system |
World Bank major funding
source; market economy in place |
| 1987-88 |
Malagasy interest in Environmental
Action Plan (EAP)
. 15-20 year plan. Three phases EP 1, 2, 3. Aims to end environmental degradation by "reconciling the population and the environment." (Kull) |
World Bank becomes interested
in looking green [Barbara Conable statement] , wants to use Madagascar
EAP as show case. Major economic crisis, Malagasy Govt initially not interested, but that happens eventually |
|
1988 |
USAID takes lead in sponsoring biodiversity
component ot EAP: six major conservation projects introduced. WWF educational programme reaches most school districts. |
|
| 1989 |
Seven
debt-for-nature swaps (WWF, Conservation International, USAID) |
|
| 1991 |
EP1
(1991-1995) : Period for establishing
operational structure Ranomafana National Park inaugurated |
General strike for two years;
new inclusive government formed. |
| 1992-5 |
1994-5 Ratification:
|
"Under pressure
of demonstrations, Ratsiraka introduces democratic reforms. A new constitution
is approved by referendum." (BBC); replaces socialist revolutionary
system (?). Albert Zafy president; pro-Zafy left coalition wins parliamentary majority. |
| 1996 |
EP 1 evaluation World Bank has positive evaluation | Zafy impeached; Ratsiraka
voted back |
|
1997
|
EP
2 (1997-2002) : Period for implementation New Forest Policy |
|
| 2000 |
Greater consideration to
"social and cultural aspects."
|
Elections for new system
of local government; AREMA wins |
| 2001 |
Senate opens
after 29 yrs. Crisis Unit for the Defence of Democracy formed after MP Jean-Eugene Voninahitsy jailed for fraud Controversial December elections |
|
| 2002 |
Marc Ravalomanana declares himself president, violence
breaks out, court calls for recount; Ravalomanana president; wants to arrest
Ratsiraka, who seeks exile in France Ravalomanana's party, I Love Madagascar, wins key election in December |
|
| 2003 |
EP 3 (2003-2008) |
|
1. Hufty, M. and Muttenzer, F. 2002. Devoted Friends: The Implementation of the Convention of Biological Diversity in Madagascar. in Le Prestre, P. G. Governing Global Biodiversity. Ashton Publ. England. [look here for some points on the implementation of the EAP] Kull, C. A. 1996. The evolution of conservation efforts in Madagascar. International Environmental Affairs 8:50-86. [look here for a conceptual model that incorporates causal factors and their interactions] Marcus, R. R. and Kull, C. 1999. The politics of conservation in Madagascar. African Studies Quarterly 3 (2) http://web.africa.ufl.edu/asq/v3/v3i2.htm |
2.
AFROL Government Profiles |
|
|
deforestation: 33% of 12 m Ha forests were destroyed in a period of
50 years (Hufty & Muttenzer). National Strategy for Conservation and Development: Required by World Conservation Strategy : IUCN/UNEP/WWF/ 1980. Natural resource conservation seen as essential to achieve self-sufficiency in agriculture. Second International Conference: Prince Philip to President Ratsiraka: "Your country is committing environmental suicide." New Forest Policy (Decree 97-120): stop degradation by supporting substitution practices to shift cultivation and by limiting fires; better manage forest resources; increase area of protected forests (promote reforestation, ensure land ownership security, intensify watershed management) |
Rakitimaria: Three problems pointed out: forest reserves, education,
and the role of foreign scientists. "In all three spheres we have
seen international organizations negotiate with Frenchmen in the name
of Madagascar but systematicallt exclude the Malagasy from our own concerns......in
the future, however, you will find that negotiations must take place
only with our government's representatives. Scientists will only
be allowed to work here if they arrange reciprocal benefits for Malagasy
colleagues. The people in this room know that Malagasy nature is
aworld heritage. We are not sure that others realize that it is our heritage." eventually: Appointment of Victor Ramahatra as prime minister pushed by World Bank? |
